Preface. Contributors. 1. Forensic environmental chemistry (Anthony Carpi and Andrew J. Schweighardt). 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Chemical fingerprinting. 1.2.1 Hydrocarbon mixtures. 1.2.2 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. 1.2.3 Biomarkers. 1.2.4 Additives. 1.2.5 Isotopes. 1.2.6 Tracers. 1.2.7 Methods of detection. 1.2.8 Weathering. 1.3 Spatial Association of Environmental Incidents. References. 2. Principles and issues in forensic analysis of explosives (Jimmie C. Oxley, Maurice Marshall, and Sarah L. Lancaster). 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Sample collection. 2.3 Packaging. 2.4 Sorting. 2.5 Documentation. 2.6 Environmental control and monitoring. 2.7 Storage. 2.8 Analysis. 2.9 Records. 2.10 Quality assurance. 2.11 Safety and other issues. Conclusion. References. 3. Analysis of fire debris (John J. Lentini). 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Evolution of separation techniques. 3.3 Evolution of analytical techniques. 3.4 Evolution of standard methods. 3.5 Isolating the residue. 3.5.1 Initial sample evaluation. 3.5.2 ILR isolation method selection. 3.5.3 Solvent selection. 3.5.4 Internal standards. 3.5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of isolation methods. 3.6 Analyzing the isolated ILR. 3.6.1 Criteria for identification. 3.6.2 Improving sensitivity. 3.6.3 Estimating the degree of evaporation. 3.6.4 Identity of source. 3.7 Reporting procedures. 3.8 Record keeping. 3.9 Quality assurance. Conclusion. References. 4. Forensic examination of soils (Raymond C. Murray). 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Murder and the pond. 4.3 Oil slicks and sands. 4.4 Medical link. 4.5 Examination methods. 4.5.1 Color. 4.5.2 Particle-size distribution. 4.5.3 Stereo binocular microscope. 4.5.4 Petrographic microscope. 4.5.5 Refractive index. 4.5.6 Cathodoluminescence. 4.5.7 Scanning electron microscope. 4.5.8 X-ray diffraction. 4.6 Chemical methods. 4.6.1 FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. 4.7 Looking ahead. References. 5. Analysis of paint evidence (Scott G. Ryland and Edward M. Suzuki). 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Paint chemistry and color science. 5.2.1 Binders. 5.2.2 Pigments. 5.3 Types of paint. 5.3.1 Automotive finish systems. 5.3.2 Architectural coatings (structural paints or house paints). 5.3.3 Other coatings. 5.4 Paint evidence interpretation considerations. 5.5 Analytical methods. 5.5.1 Microscopic examinations. 5.5.2 Physical nature of the transfer. 5.5.3 Microscopy. 5.5.4 Microspectrophotometry. 5.5.5 Infrared spectroscopy. 5.5.6 Raman spectroscopy. 5.5.7 Pyrolysis gas chromatography and pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. 5.5.8 Elemental analysis methods. 5.5.9 Other methods. 5.6 Examples. 5.6.1 Example 1. 5.6.2 Example 2. 5.6.3 Example 3. References. 6. Analysis techniques used for the forensic examination of writing and printing inks (Gerald M. LaPorte and Joseph C. Stephens). 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Ink. 6.2.1 Ink composition. 6.3 Ink analysis. 6.3.1 Physical examinations. 6.3.2 Optical examinations. 6.3.3 Chemical examinations. 6.3.4 Ink dating. 6.4 Office machine systems. 6.4.1 Inkjet ink. 6.4.2 Inkjet ink analysis. 6.4.3 Toner printing. 6.4.4 Toner analysis. Conclusion. References. 7. The role of vibrational spectroscopy in forensic chemistry (Ali Koçak). 7.1 Introduction to vibrational spectroscopy. 7.2 Infrared spectroscopy. 7.3 Infrared sampling techniques. 7.3.1 Transmission spectroscopy. 7.3.2 External reflection spectroscopy. 7.3.3 Attenuated total reflectance. 7.3.4 Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. 7.3.5 Infrared microspectroscopy. 7.4 Raman spectroscopy. 7.5 Raman spectroscopic techniques. 7.5.1 Surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy. 7.5.2 Resonance Raman scattering. 7.5.3 Coherent anti-stokes Raman spectroscopy. 7.5.4 Confocal Raman spectroscopy. 7.6 Applications of vibrational spectroscopy in forensic analysis. References. 8. Forensic serology (Richard Li). 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Identification of blood. 8.2.1 Oxidation–reduction reactions. 8.2.2 Microcrystal assays. 8.2.3 Other assays for blood identification. 8.3 Species identification. 8.3.1 Immunochromatographic assays. 8.3.2 Ouchterlony assay. 8.3.3 Crossed-over immunoelectrophoresis. 8.4 Identification of semen. 8.4.1 Visual examination. 8.4.2 Acid phosphatase assays. 8.4.3 Microscopic examination of spermatozoa. 8.4.4 Immunochromatographic assays. 8.4.5 RNA-based assays. 8.5 Identification of saliva. 8.5.1 Visual and microscopic examination. 8.5.2 Identification of amylase. 8.5.3 RNA-based assays. References. 9. Forensic DNA analysis (Henrietta Margolis Nunno). 9.1 Introduction. 9.1.1 Background on DNA typing. 9.1.2 DNA Structure. 9.1.3 Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA organization. 9.2 Methodology. 9.2.1 Sample collection and DNA extraction. 9.2.2 DNA quantification. 9.2.3 Polymerase chain reaction. 9.2.4 Short Tandem Repeats. 9.2.5 PCR of STRs. 9.2.6 Separation and sizing of STR alleles. 9.2.7 Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) Database. 9.2.8 Frequency and probability. 9.3 Problems encountered in STR analysis. 9.3.1 Low-Copy-Number DNA. 9.3.2 Degraded DNA and reduced-size (mini) STR primer sets. 9.3.3 PCR inhibition. 9.3.4 Interpretation of mixtures of DNA. 9.3.5 Null alleles and allele dropout. 9.3.6 Factors causing extra peaks in results observed. 9.3.7 Stutter product peaks. 9.3.8 Nontemplate addition (incomplete adenylation). 9.3.9 Technological artifacts. 9.3.10 Single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis of autosomal DNA SNPs. 9.3.11 Methods used for SNP analysis. 9.3.12 Mitochondrial DNA analysis. 9.4 Methodology for mtDNA analysis. 9.4.1 Preparation of samples. 9.4.2 MtDNA sequencing methods. 9.4.3 Reference sequences. 9.4.4 Screening assays for mtDNA. 9.4.5 Interpretation of mtDNA sequencing results. 9.4.6 Statistics: the meaning of a match for mtDNA. 9.4.7 Heteroplasmy. 9.4.8 The future of DNA analysis. References. 10. Current and future uses of DNA microarrays in Forensic Science (Nathan H. Lents). 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 What is a DNA microarray? 10.2.1 cDNA Microarray. 10.2.2 Other types of DNA arrays. 10.2.3 The birth of “-omics”. 10.3 DNA microarrays in toxicogenomics. 10.3.1 Sharing information. 10.3.2 Forensic application. 10.4 Detection of microorganisms using microarrays. 10.4.1 Historical perspective. 10.4.2 DNA fingerprinting. 10.4.3 DNA fingerprinting by microarrays. 10.4.4 DNA sequence-based detection. 10.4.5 Where DNA microarrays come in. 10.4.6 Looking forward: genetic virulence signatures. 10.5 Probing human genomes by DNA microarrays. 10.5.1 STR analysis. 10.5.2 SNP analysis. 10.5.3 Exploring an unknown genome? Conclusion. References. 11. Date-rape drugs with emphasis on GHB (Stanley M. Parsons). 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Molecular mechanisms of action. 11.2.1 Receptors and transporters. 11.2.2 Real GHB receptors. 11.3 Societal context of date-rape agents. 11.3.1 Acute effects of date-rape agents on cognition and behavior. 11.3.2 Medicinal Uses of date-rape drugs. 11.3.3 Self-abuse. 11.3.4 Date rape, death, and regulation. 11.4 Metabolism fundamentals. 11.4.1 Complexity in unraveling metabolism of GHB-related compounds. 11.4.2 Isozymes in GHB-related metabolism. 11.4.3 Subcellular compartmentalization of enzymes, transporters, and substrates. 11.4.4 Dynamics and equilibria for enzymes and transporters. 11.4.5 Thermodynamics-based analysis of metabolic flux. 11.4.6 Metabolism of endogenous GHB versus ingested GHB and prodrugs. 11.4.7 Directionality of in Vivo and in Vitro enzymatic activity. 11.4.8 Transporters and enzymes mediating GHB-related metabolism. 11.5 Biosynthesis of endogenous GHB. 11.5.1 First step for GHB biosynthesis in the known pathway. 11.5.2 Second step for GHB biosynthesis in the known pathway. 11.5.3 Third step for GHB biosynthesis in the known pathway. 11.5.4 Which step in GHB biosynthesis is rate limiting? 11.5.5 Are there other biosynthetic pathways to endogenous GHB? 11.6 Absorption and distribution of ingested GHB. 11.6.1 Gastrointestinal tract. 11.6.2 Blood. 11.7 Initial catabolism of GHB. 11.7.1 Transport into mitochondria. 11.7.2 Iron-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase ADHFe1. 11.7.3 Poorly characterized catabolism of GHB. 11.8 Chemistry of GHB and related metabolites not requiring enzymes. 11.9 Experimental equilibrium constants for redox reactions of GHB. 11.10 Estimated Equilibrium constants for redox reactions of GHB in Vivo. 11.11 Different perspectives on turnover of endogenous GHB are consistent. 11.12 Disposition of succinic semialdehyde. 11.13 Conversion of prodrugs to GHB and related metabolites. 11.13.1 ?-Butyrolactone. 11.13.2 1,4-Butanediol.

11.14 Subcellular compartmentalization of GHB-related compounds. 11.15 Comparative catabolism of Ethanol, 1,4-Butanediol, fatty acids, and GHB. 11.16 Catabolism of MDMA, Flunitrazepam, and Ketamine. 11.17 Detection of date-rape drugs. 11.17.1 Compounds diagnostic for dosing by synthetic date-rape drugs. 11.17.2 Compounds diagnostic for dosing by GHB. 11.17.3 Gold-standard testing. 11.17.4 Many applications for reliable field tests. 11.17.5 Hospital emergency department example. 11.17.6 Preparation of a sample for delayed analysis. 11.17.7 Time window available to detect dosing. 11.17.8 Extending the time window. 11.18 Special circumstances of GHB. 11.18.1 Industrial connection. 11.18.2 Enzymes acting on GHB in bacteria, yeast, and plants. 11.18.3 Possible accidental intoxication by GHB in the future. 11.19 Considerations during development of field tests. 11.19.1 Shortcomings of antibody-based screens for simple analytes. 11.19.2 Advantages of enzyme-based screens for simple natural analytes. 11.20 Development of an enzymatic test for GHB. 11.20.1 Sensitivity required for the Hospital Emergency Department. 11.20.2 Choice of enzyme. 11.20.3 Reliable field test for GHB. Conclusion. Notes. References. 12. Forensic and clinical issues in alcohol analysis (Richard Stripp). 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Blood alcohol concentration. 12.3 Alcohol impairment and driving skills. 12.4 Field sobriety tests. 12.5 Blood alcohol measurements. 12.5.1 Enzymatic methods. 12.5.2 Headspace gas chromatography. 12.5.3 Breath alcohol testing. 12.5.4 Breath alcohol instrumentation. 12.5.5 Extrapolation from BrAC to BAC. 12.5.6 Urine and saliva. 12.5.7 Ethyl Glucuronide. 12.5.8 Postmortem determination of alcohol. 12.5.9 Quality assurance of alcohol testing. References. 13. Fundamental issues of postmortem toxicology (Donald B. Hoffman, Beth E. Zedeck, and Morris S. Zedeck). 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Tissue and fluid specimens. 13.2.1 Blood. 13.2.2 Urine. 13.2.3 Vitreous humor and cerebrospinal fluid. 13.2.4 Gastric contents. 13.2.5 Meconium. 13.2.6 Brain. 13.2.7 Liver and bile. 13.2.8 Lung, spleen, kidney, and skin. 13.2.9 Muscle. 13.2.10 Bone, teeth, nails, and hair. 13.2.11 Other materials for analysis. 13.3 Specimen collection and storage. 13.4 Extraction procedures. 13.5 Analytical techniques. 13.6 Interpretation. 13.6.1 Postmortem redistribution.13.6.2 Pharmacogenomics. 13.6.3 Drug interactions. 13.6.4 Drug stability and decomposed tissue. 13.6.5 Effects of embalming fluid. Conclusion. References. 14. Entomotoxicology: drugs, toxins, and insects (Jason H. Byrd and Michelle R. Peace). 14.1 Introduction. 14.2 The Fly and Forensic Science. 14.2.1 History of Forensic Entomology, Toxicology, and the rise of Entomotoxicology. 14.2.2 Drugs and the fly life cycle. 14.2.3 Why use insects as a toxicological specimen? 14.2.4 Drug extraction methods. 14.2.5 Qualitative versus Quantitative. 14.2.6 Changes in insect development: toxins and drugs. 14.2.7 The future of Entomotoxicology. References.